Bacterial pathogens can drive immune exhaustion, a concept traditionally studied in viral and oncologic contexts but increasingly recognized in chronic bacterial infections.

Biofilms, immune-privileged niches, and regulatory T-cell expansion are major contributors to persistent immune dysfunction, creating barriers to effective immune responses.

Immune exhaustion exacerbates secondary infections, antibiotic resistance, and microbiome dysbiosis, underscoring its broader impact beyond direct bacterial persistence.

Targeting exhaustion pathways through immune checkpoint blockade, metabolic reprogramming, and microbiome modulation offers promising therapeutic strategies beyond conventional antimicrobial approaches.